Spectroscopic methods
Raman, FTIR, UV–Vis and photoluminescence provide different kinds of spectral information. Each technique has strengths and limitations.
Chemical and structural methods
X-ray fluorescence, LA-ICP-MS and related methods help characterise elemental composition. Interpret analytical data with appropriate references and calibration.
Integrated interpretation
Reliable laboratory reporting depends on validated methods, trained analysts and comparison with complementary evidence.
Illustrated guide
Frequently asked questions
Can one laboratory instrument determine geographic origin?
Origin determination generally requires integrated evidence, reference datasets and expert interpretation.